Thyroid Cancer: Concise Literature Review

Background: Thyroid cancer is the most common endocrine malignancy and its global incidence has increased substantially over the past decades. While most cases correspond to well-differentiated tumors with excellent prognosis, a subset of patients develops aggressive disease characterized by recurrence, metastasis, and resistance to therapy. Objective: To provide a concise overview of the current literature regarding the epidemiology, histologic heterogeneity, molecular pathogenesis, diagnostic approaches, and contemporary management strategies for thyroid cancer. Methods: A narrative review of the literature was conducted focusing on key themes in thyroid cancer research, including incidence trends, molecular drivers of tumorigenesis, subtype-specific characteristics, emerging biomarkers, and advances in systemic therapies. Results: Thyroid cancer incidence has risen significantly worldwide, largely due to increased detection of small papillary thyroid carcinomas, raising concerns regarding overdiagnosis. Histologically, thyroid cancer comprises several subtypes, including papillary, follicular, Hürthle cell, poorly differentiated, anaplastic, and medullary carcinomas, each with distinct biological behavior and prognosis. Molecular alterations involving the MAPK pathway, particularly BRAF and RAS mutations, play central roles in tumor initiation, while additional alterations such as TERT promoter and TP53 mutations contribute to disease progression and dedifferentiation. Diagnostic evaluation relies on ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration and guideline-based risk stratification. Standard treatment includes surgery with selective use of radioactive iodine in differentiated tumors. For advanced or refractory disease, targeted therapies and multikinase inhibitors have expanded treatment options. Emerging research on the tumor immune microenvironment and circulating biomarkers may further refine diagnosis and personalized therapy. Conclusion: Thyroid cancer represents a heterogeneous group of malignancies with diverse clinical behavior. Advances in molecular biology, targeted therapy, and risk-adapted management strategies are reshaping treatment paradigms. Continued research is needed to address persistent challenges such as overdiagnosis, therapeutic resistance, and the development of reliable biomarkers for disease monitoring.