<i>Ex situ</i> plant conservation under international and national legislation in Poland

Abstract Plants constitute the foundation of life on Earth, providing oxygen, food, and ecosystem services essential for human well-being. At the same time, they are among the most threatened components of biodiversity, with current extinction rates estimated to be 100–1,000 times higher than natural background levels. Global and national assessments, including the Polish Red List, indicate that nearly 30% of vascular plant species in Poland are at risk of extinction. Crop wild relatives are of particular concern, as they represent a crucial reservoir of genetic diversity for breeding, climate resilience, and food security. Against this background, ex situ conservation has become an indispensable complement to in situ measures and, in many cases, the only viable option for safeguarding critically endangered taxa. It encompasses seed banks, botanical gardens, arboreta, and tissue culture collections, with an emphasis on maintaining genetic integrity, representativeness, and phytosanitary security of stored material. This article reviews the international and national legal frameworks that regulate plant biodiversity conservation and the management of plant genetic resources. It discusses the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Nagoya Protocol, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, as well as EU legislation and the Polish Nature Conservation Act. A distinction is drawn between plant conservation, understood as biodiversity-focused protection, and plant protection, defined primarily in a phytosanitary context. Practical mechanisms of plant material exchange, such as the International Plant Exchange Network and the Index Seminum , are also analyzed. The study concludes that the effective safeguarding of plant biodiversity in Poland requires coherent, multilayered governance that links international commitments with national policies and operational ex situ practices.